Accidents at Nuclear Power Plants and Cancer Risk

1. 
   What is ionizing radiation?
   Ionizing radiation consists of subatomic particles (that is, particles that are smaller than an atom, such as protons, neutrons, and electrons) and electromagnetic waves. These particles and waves have enough energy to strip electrons from, or ionize, atoms in molecules that they strike. Ionizing radiation can arise in a number of ways, including the following:
   
   • From the spontaneous decay (breakdown) of unstable isotopes. Unstable isotopes, which are also called radioactive isotopes, give off, or emit, ionizing radiation as part of the decay process. Radioactive isotopes occur naturally in the Earth’s crust, soil, atmosphere, and oceans. These isotopes are also produced in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons explosions.
     
   • From cosmic rays originating in the sun and other extraterrestrial sources and from technological devices ranging from dental and medical x-ray machines to the picture tubes of old-style televisions.
   Everyone on Earth is exposed to low levels of ionizing radiation from natural and technological sources in varying proportions, depending on their geographic location, diet, occupation, and lifestyle.
   At high doses, ionizing radiation can cause immediate damage to a person’s body, including radiation sickness and death. Ionizing radiation is also a carcinogen, even at low doses; it causes cancer primarily because it damages DNA. However, the lower the dose of ionizing radiation, the lower the chances of harm.
   Children and adolescents are more sensitive to the cancer-causing effects of ionizing radiation than adults because their bodies are still growing and developing. In addition, children and adolescents usually have more years of life following radiation exposure during which cancer may develop. 
2. What cancer risks are associated with nuclear power plant accidents?
   Nuclear power plants use energy released by the decay of certain radioactive isotopes to produce electricity. Additional radioactive isotopes are produced during this process. In nuclear power plants, specially designed fuel rods and containment structures enclose the radioactive materials to prevent them, and the ionizing radiation they produce, from contaminating the environment. If the fuel and surrounding containment structures are severely damaged, radioactive materials and ionizing radiation may be released, potentially posing a health risk for people. The actual risk depends on several factors:
   
   • The specific radioactive materials, or isotopes, released, and the quantities released.
   • How a person comes into contact with the released radioactive materials (such as through contaminated food, water, air, or on the skin).
   • The person’s age (those exposed at younger ages are generally at higher risk).
   • The duration and amount of the exposure.
   More information about the health effects of ionizing radiation exposure is available from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/emergencyfaq.asp) and the Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/understand/health_effects.html).
   The radioactive isotopes released in nuclear power plant accidents include I-131 and Cs-137. In the most severe kinds of accidents, such as the Chernobyl accident in 1986, other dangerous radioactive isotopes, such as strontium-90 (Sr-90) and plutonium-239, may also be released.
   Human exposure to I-131 released from nuclear power plant accidents comes mainly from consuming contaminated water, milk, or foods. People may also be exposed by breathing dust particles in the air that are contaminated with I-131.
   Inside the body, I-131 accumulates in the thyroid gland, which is an organ in the neck. The thyroid gland uses iodine to produce hormones that control how quickly the body uses energy. Because the thyroid does not distinguish between I-131 and nonradioactive iodine, the thyroid gland will accumulate either form. Exposure to radioactive iodine may increase the risk of thyroid cancer many years later, especially for children and adolescents.
   Exposure to Cs-137 can be external to the body or internal. External exposure comes from walking on contaminated soil or coming into contact with contaminated materials at nuclear accident sites. Internal exposure can come from breathing particles in the air that contain Cs-137, such as dust originating from contaminated soil, or ingesting contaminated water or foods. Because Cs-137 is not concentrated in a particular tissue, the ionizing radiation that it releases can expose all tissues and organs of the body. 
3. How have researchers learned about cancer risks from nuclear power plant accidents?
   Much of what is known about cancer caused by radiation exposures from nuclear power plant accidents comes from research on the April 1986 nuclear power plant disaster at Chernobyl, in what is now Ukraine. The radioactive isotopes released during the Chernobyl accident included I-131, Cs-137, and Sr-90.
   Approximately 600 workers at the power plant during the emergency received very high doses of radiation and suffered from radiation sickness. All of those who received more than 6 grays (Gy) of radiation became very sick right away and subsequently died. Those who received less than 4 Gy had a better chance of survival. (A Gy is a measure of the amount of radiation absorbed by a person’s body.)
   Hundreds of thousands of people who worked as part of the cleanup crews in the years after the accident were exposed to lower external doses of ionizing radiation, ranging from approximately 0.14 Gy in 1986 to 0.04 Gy in 1989. In this group of people, there was an increased risk of leukemia.
   Approximately 6.5 million residents of the contaminated areas surrounding Chernobyl received much lower amounts of radiation. From 1986 through 2005, these people received an accumulated average dose of 0.0092 Gy from external and internal sources of radiation. Children and adolescents exposed to I-131 showed an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer (see Question 4). 
4. How long after exposure to I-131 is the risk of thyroid cancer increased?
   Although the time it takes for the radiation to decrease by half (the half-life) of I-131 is only 8 days, the damage it causes can increase the risk of thyroid cancer for many years after the initial exposure.
   A study led by National Cancer Institute (NCI) researchers followed more than 12,500 people who were younger than age 18 at the time they were exposed to high doses of I-131 (0.65 Gy on average) from the Chernobyl accident. A total of 65 new cases of thyroid cancer were found in this population between 1998 and 2007. Roughly half of these new cases were attributed to I-131 exposure. The researchers found that the higher a person’s dose of I-131, the more likely they were to get thyroid cancer (with each Gy of exposure associated with a doubling of risk). They also found that this risk remained high for at least 20 years. 
5. What can people do to protect themselves from health risks associated with exposure to contamination from a nuclear power plant accident?
   Information on this topic is available from the CDC (http://www.bt.cdc.gov/radiation/emergencyfaq.asp) and other Federal agencies (http://www.hhs.gov/response/2011tsunami/index.html#radiation). 
6. What should cancer patients do if they live in an area that may be contaminated due to a nuclear power plant accident?
   Cancer patients who are being treated with systemic chemotherapy or radiation therapy should be evacuated from the area where a nuclear power plant accident has occurred so their medical treatment can continue without interruption. Patients should always keep a record of the treatments they have had in the past and that they may be currently receiving, including the names of any drugs and their doses. These records may be important in the aftermath not only of a nuclear power plant accident but also of other large-scale events that may disrupt medical services, when medical records may be lost.
   Local or national authorities may also advise certain people (newborns, infants, children, adolescents, and women who are pregnant) in areas with high I-131 contamination to take potassium iodide (KI) to prevent the accumulation of I-131 in their thyroid. KI should not pose a danger to someone who previously received radiation therapy or chemotherapy. Patients who are actively being treated for cancer and who are advised to take KI should consult with their doctor before taking the medication, so their doctor can evaluate their treatment plan and their health status, including their nutritional status, to determine the safety of KI treatment for them. 
7. What research is NCI currently supporting on ionizing radiation and cancer risk?
   Researchers at NCI and elsewhere continue to learn about the cancer risks from ionizing radiation by studying various groups of people, including those who were exposed as a result of the Chernobyl accident, survivors of the atomic bomb explosions in Japan during World War II, and those who were exposed to medical forms of radiation.
   
   • NCI conducts much of this research through its Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics (DCEG). Information about the projects conducted by staff in this division’s Radiation Epidemiology Branch is available at http://dceg.cancer.gov/reb.
     
   • More detailed information about the long-term study of Chernobyl survivors can be found at http://chernobyl.cancer.gov/.
     
   • Through DCEG and the Division of Cancer Biology, NCI supports a tissue bank that contains samples from the Chernobyl survivors that are being used to understand the effects of radioactive exposure from nuclear power plant accidents. A description of this resource is available at http://resresources.nci.nih.gov/database.cfm?id=1531.
     
   • NCI collaborates with researchers from Japan’s Radiation Effects Research Foundation to learn about the health effects from the 1945 atomic bomb exposures in that country. This ongoing project is called the Life Span Study (http://www.rerf.or.jp/index_ea.html ).
     
   • The Division of Cancer Control and Population Sciences supports research at universities designed to study the health effects of radioactivity in the environment, including breast cancer risk among female survivors of the Chernobyl accident. A description of this study can be found at http://cancercontrol.cancer.gov/grants/abstract.asp?ApplID=7903911.
     
   • NCI works closely with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to support the federal government’s Medical Countermeasures Against Radiological and Nuclear Threats Program (http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/radnuc/Pages/default.aspx).
     
   • Health professionals can also find information about the medical management of exposed persons during radiation emergencies on the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Radiation Emergency Medical Management Web site, which is located at http://www.remm.nlm.gov/.

Cervical Cancer Killer Many Women

Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer or cervical cancer (often also called cervical cancer ) is one of the diseases most common cancer for women. Every one hour, one woman died in Indonesia due to cervical cancer or cervical cancer. The fact is that millions of women in the world are infected with HPV , which is considered the disease through sexual intercourse most common in the world.

In Indonesia, every one hour, one woman died of cervical cancer

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), this infection is a major risk factor for cervical cancer. Every year, hundreds of thousands of undiagnosed cases of HPV in the world and thousands of women die from cervical cancer, caused by the infection. Given the fact that this horrible, then the various measures of prevention and treatment have been made to cope with cervical cancer or cervical cancer.

Cervical cancer or cervical cancer occur in the reproductive organs of a woman. The cervix is ​​the narrow part at the bottom between the vagina and uterus of a woman. In part this is happening and where the growth of cervical cancer. What causes cervical cancer or cervical cancer? How do I prevent it? And how to deal with it if already infected with HPV?

HPV

Cervical cancer is caused by a viral infection with HPV (human papillomavirus) or human papilloma virus. HPV cause warts in men and women, including genital warts, called condyloma akuminatum . Only a few of the hundreds of variants of HPV that can cause cancer. Cervical cancer or cervical cancer can occur if there is an infection that does not heal for a long time. In contrast, most HPV infections will go away, overcome by the immune system.

Causes and Symptoms of Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is attacking the neck of the uterus or cervix are caused by viral infection with HPV (human papillomavirus) that do not heal in a long time. If the immune system decreases, so will mengganas HPV infection and can cause cervical cancer. Symptoms are not very visible at an early stage, that is why cervical cancer that starts from HPV infection is considered as "The Silent Killer" .

Some symptoms can be observed although not always an indication of HPV infection. Whitish or spend a little blood after intercourse is little sign of symptoms of this cancer. In addition, the presence of a yellowish liquid that smells in the genital area can also be an indication of HPV infection. This virus can be transmitted from one patient to another and infect that person. Transmission can be through direct contact and because of sex.

When there is a virus in a person's hand, then touching the genital area, the virus will move and can infect the cervix or neck of your womb. Another mode of transmission is in the closet in a public restroom that has been contaminated by the virus. A cancer patient may use a closet , the HPV virus found in patients switching to the closet . When you use it without cleaning, virus could then move on to your genital area.

The bad one's lifestyle may be supporting the increasing number of patients with this cancer. Smoking habits, lack of vitamin C, vitamin E and folic acid may be the cause. If you eat nutritious foods will make the immune system increases and can expel the virus HPV.

The risk of cervical cancer are women who are sexually active since very early age, which often change sex partners, or who have sex with men who like to change partners. Another factor is the Pill for a long time or come from families who have a history of cancer.

Often times, the man who showed no symptoms of HPV infection that is spread to their partners. A man who had sex with a woman suffering from cervical cancer, will become the carrier of this virus. Furthermore, when a man is having sex with his wife, the virus can be passed to and infects his wife.

Detection of Cervical Cancer

How do I detect that a woman infected with HPV that cause cervical cancer? Symptoms of a person infected with HPV are not visible and not easily observed. The easiest way to find out by cytological examination of the cervix. This examination is now popularly known as a Pap smear or Papanicolaou smear is taken from a Greek physician who discovered this method of George N. Papanicolaou. However, there are also various other methods for early detection of HPV infection and cervical cancer as follows:

• IVA

IVA is short for Visual Inspection with Acetic Acid. Inspection method and applying a cervical or cervix with acetic acid. Then observed for any abnormalities such as white areas. If no color change, then it can be considered no infection of the cervix. You can do in the health center with a relatively cheap price. This can be done only for early detection. If you see any suspicious signs, then the other detection methods are further to be done.

• Pap smears

Pap smear test methods in common: doctors use a scraper or brush to remove a small sample of cells of the cervix or neck of the womb. Then the cells will be analyzed in the laboratory. The test can reveal whether there is infection, inflammation, or abnormal cells. According to the world, with regular Pap smear tests have reduced the number of deaths from cervical cancer.

• Thin prep

Method of Thin prep is more accurate than Pap smear. If the Pap smear only take some of the cells in the cervix or uterus, then the Thin prep will inspect all parts of the cervix or uterus. Of course the result will be far more accurate and precise.

• Colposcopy

If all test results on the previous method showed the presence of infection or irregularities, colposcopy procedure will be done by using a tool equipped with a magnifying lens to observe the infected part. The goal is to determine whether there are lesions or abnormal tissue on the cervix or uterus. If there is abnormal, a biopsy - taking a small amount of tissue from the body - made and treatment for cervical cancer begin.

Treating Cervical Cancer

If infected with HPV, do not worry, because the currently available range of treatments that can control HPV infection. Several treatments aimed at turning off the cells that contain the HPV virus. Another way is to remove the damaged or infected with electric surgery, laser surgery, or cryosurgery (remove the abnormal tissue by freezing).

If cervical cancer has reached an advanced stage, it will be done chemo therapy. In some severe cases may also be performed hysterectomy is the surgical removal of the uterus or womb in total. Aim is to remove cervical cancer cells that have been developed on the body.

However, prevention is better than cure. Therefore, how to prevent HPV infection and cervical cancer? Here are some ways you can do to prevent cervical cancer.

Preventing Cervical Cancer

Although cervical cancer is scary, but we can all prevent it. You can do a lot of precautionary measures before ultimately suffering from HPV infection and cervical cancer . Some practical ways you can do in everyday life include:

• Have a healthy diet, rich in vegetables, fruit and cereal to stimulate the immune system. For example, consume a variety of carotene, vitamins A, C, and E, and folic acid can reduce the risk of cervical cancer.
• Avoid smoking. Much evidence suggests the use of tobacco may increase the risk of cervical cancer.
  
   
• Avoid sex before marriage or at the very young or teenage years.
• Avoid having sex during menstrual period proved to be effective to prevent and inhibit the formation and development of cervical cancer.
• Avoid sex with multiple partners.
• Routinely tested for Pap smears regularly. Currently the test Pap smear can be done even at the health center at an affordable price.
• Alternative Pap smear is a test IVA with a cheaper cost than a Pap smear. The goal for the early detection of HPV infection.
• Giving the HPV vaccine or vaccination to prevent HPV infection.
• Do cleaning or sex organs known as vaginal toilet . This can be done alone or can be also with the help of an expert physician. The goal is to clean the female sex organs of dirt and disease.

Healthy Living Without Cervical Cancer

Cervical cancer is preventable and treatable. Early detection and perform routine Pap smears will minimize the risk of cervical cancer. Change your lifestyle and your diet to avoid the disease that killed many women in this world. Thus, the health of the cervix or the cervix is more assured. With proper treatment, cervical cancer is not something scary.